Курсовая работа: French Borrowings in the Modern English Language
It is estimated that there are 300 million native speakers and 300 million who use English as a second language and a further 100 million use it as a foreign language. It is the language of science, aviation, computing, diplomacy, and tourism. It is listed as the official or co-official language of over 45 countries and is spoken extensively in other countries where it has no official status.
This domination is unique in history. English is on its way to becoming the world's unofficial international language. Mandarin (Chinese) is spoken by more people, but English is now the most widespread of the world's languages.
Half of all business deals are conducted in English. Two thirds of all scientific papers are written in English. Over 70% of all post / mail is written and addressed in English. Most international tourism, aviation and diplomacy are conducted in English.
English contains many words from Norman French, brought to England during the 11th century Norman Conquest.
In 1066 the Normans conquered Britain. French became the language of the Norman aristocracy and added more vocabulary to English. More pairs of similar words arose.
Table 1. French-English bilinguism
| French | English |
| close | shut |
| reply | answer |
| odour | smell |
| annual | yearly |
| demand | ask |
| chamber | room |
| desire | wish |
| power | might |
| ire | wrath / anger |
Because the English underclass cooked for the Norman upper class, the words for most domestic animals are English (ox, cow, calf, sheep, swine, deer ) while the words for the meats derived from them are French (beef, veal, mutton, pork, bacon, venison).
The Germanic form of plurals (house, housen; shoe, shoen ) was eventually displaced by the French method of making plurals: adding an s (house, houses; shoe, shoes ). Only a few words have retained their Germanic plurals: men, oxen, feet, teeth, children.
It wasn't till the 14th Century that English became dominant in Britain again. In 1399, King Henry IV became the first king of England since the Norman Conquest whose mother tongue was English. By the end of the 14th Century, the dialect of London had emerged as the standard dialect of what we now call Middle English . Chaucer wrote in this language.
Modern English began around the 16th Century and, like all languages, is still changing. One change occurred when the suffix of some verb forms became s (loveth, loves; hath, has ). Auxiliary verbs also changed (he is risen, he has risen ).
Norman French is the 11th century language of France and England . It is an Indo-European language.
In 1066, the Norman king, William the Conqueror , invaded England . Many Norman French words entered the language after this. In general, the Normans were the nobility, while the native English were their servants. The names of domestic animals and their meats show this relationship. The animal name is English ("cow", "sheep", "pig") while the names of the meats derived from these animals is French ("beef", "mutton", "pork").
Table 2. English - A Historical Summary
Many words have been borrowed from Norman French . These can be grouped into several types:
legal terms ("adultery", "slander"),
military words ("surrender", "occupy"),
names of meats ("bacon", "venison"),
words from the royal court ("chivalry", "majesty").
the non-metric unit of volume (the "gallon") is Norman French . There are many other words.
The Normans introduced the QU spelling for words containing KW ("question").
Table 3. French borrowings
| Word | Meaning | Notes |
| accuse | One of many legal words from Norman French. | |
| adultery | ||
| archer | One of several military words from Norman French. | |
| arson | Crime of deliberate burning. | |
| assault | ||
| asset | enough | |
| bacon | Cured pig's meat. One of many names for meats from Norman French. | |
| bail | to take charge | Security for a prisoner's appearance. |
| bailiff | carrier | Officer who executes writs. |
| beef | Meat of ox or cow. | |
| butcher | seller of goat flesh | A dealer in meat. |
| button | ||
| chivalry | horseman | One of many words used in royal life from Norman French. |
| comfort | strengthen | |
| courtesy | ||
| cricket | A ball game played in the UK, Caribbean, parts of Africa and Asia, Australia, New Zealand. | |
| crime | judgment | |
| curfew | cover fire | Period to be off the streets. |
| custard | Baked mixture of eggs and milk. | |
| defeat | ||
| dungeon | Underground prison. | |
| duty | ||
| eagle | Large bird of prey. | |
| elope | run away | |
| embezzle | ravage | |
| enemy | non friend | |
| error | ||
| evidence | ||
| exchequer | A national treasury. | |
| fashion | make | |
| felony | A serious crime. | |
| fraud | ||
| gallon | jug | A unit of liquid volume (= 4.546 Ч 10-3 m3 in UK; = 3.785 Ч 10-3 m3 in USA) |
| goblin | ||
| gourd | ||
| grammar | art of letters | |
| grease | fat | |
| grief | ||
| grocer | Food dealer. Originally "one who deals in the gross". | |
| gutter | drop | Track for water. |
| haddock | A type of fish. | |
| havoc | ||
| hogmanay | Now a Scottish festival at New Year. | |
| honour | ||
| injury | wrong | Wrongful action or damage. |
| jettison | throw overboard | |
| joy | ||
| judge | right speaking | |
| jury | swear | |
| justice | ||
| larceny | The crime of theft. | |
| lavender | Perfumed shrub. | |
| launch | hurl | |
| lease | leave | |
| leisure | allowed | Free time. |
| lever | to raise | |
| liable | may be bound | |
| libel | little book | |
| liberty | free | |
| liquorice | sweet root | Originally from a Greek root, "glico riza". |
| mackerel | A type of fish. | |
| majesty | ||
| mangle | ||
| manor | remain | |
| marriage | ||
| matrimony | From the same root as "matriarch" (mother). | |
| mayhem | ||
| mutton | Meat of sheep. | |
| noble | ||
| noun | name | |
| nurse | nourish | |
| occupy | seize | |
| odour | smell | |
| parliament | speaking | Ruling council in countries like UK. |
| pedigree | crane's foot | From "pe de gru". Because bird's feet marks resemble a family tree. |
| penthouse | ||
| perjury | False statement under oath. | |
| pinch | As in "grip tightly". | |
| platter | big plate | |
| pleasure | ||
| small bag | ||
| pork | The meat of the pig. | |
| prison | lay hold of | |
| profound | deep | |
| purloin | put away | |
| purveyor | Supplier of food. | |
| push | ||
| quarter | The Normans introduced the QU spelling for the KW sound. | |
| question | ||
| quiet | ||
| quiver | The arrow case. | |
| rape | take by force | |
| reason | ||
| rebuke | Originally "to cut down wood". | |
| rebut | ||
| recover | ||
| remedy | to heal | |
| renown | to make famous | |
| rent | The same root as "render". | |
| repeal | ||
| reprieve | send back | |
| reprisal | ||
| retail | piece cut off | |
| reward | ||
| river | ||
| robe | ||
| royal | ||
| rummage | ||
| salary | salt | Soldiers used to be paid with salt. |
| salmon | A type of fish. | |
| scavenger | tax collector | |
| scullery | maker of dishes | |
| search | ||
| sermon | ||
| sewer | Originally a channel to carry off overflow from a fishpond. | |
| share | ||
| shop | cobbler's stall | |
| sir | From "sire". | |
| slander | ||
| soil | ||
| sovereign | ||
| spawn | ||
| spy | ||
| squirrel | little shadow tail | |
| stubble | grain stalks | |
| subsidy | support | |
| suitor | ||
| surname | Family name. | |
| surplus | ||
| surrender | ||
| survey | ||
| survive | over live | |
| syllable | ||
| tally | mark on a stick | Tally sticks were used to record financial transactions. |
| tax | to charge | |
| toil | stir | |
| treason | ||
| treaty | ||
| uncle | ||
| usher | door keeper | |
| valley | ||
| veal | ||
| veil | ||
| venison | to hunt | Deer meat |
| vicar | assistant | |
| vice | ||
| view | ||
| virgin | ||
| vulture | Large bird of prey. | |
| wafer | ||
| waive | ||
| warden | Same root as "guardian". | |
| wicket | gate | Wooden sticks used in the game of cricket. |
| wreck |
The French Language in England
1066-1200
Norman French is the native language of the nobility.
Probably not a great deal of bilingualism
Small numbers of French loans enter English: legal, administrative and military terms.
1200-1300
1204 Loss of Normandy.