Реферат: How to use dictionary
Most dictionaries tell us much more than just the meanings of words. Many list pronunciations, derivations, refixes and suffixes, illustrative quotations, synonyms and other information. The illustration articles in dictionaries show in detail what dictionaries contain.
Dictionaries may be clasified as general dictionaries and special dictionaries. A general dictionary contains information on everyday words such as it and the. But it also defines many technical terms, such as chromatografhy and columella. A specialized dictionary omits most everyday terms, and limits itself to information on words used in a particular field, such as biology.
General dictionaries range in size from small pocket dictionaries to large multivolume or table dictionaries. The number of entries in general dictionary depends, on its purpose. Each dictionary is designed to answer the questions of a certain type of reader. The World Book Dictioanry is an example of a dictionary designed for family use. The largest general dictionaries may contain over 400000 entries when a dictionary has this many entries, many absolete and technical terms are included. Other general dictionaries may have from 15000 entries to 200000 entries.
Specialized dictionaries are designed to give more information in particular fields than general dictionaries can. Dictionaries of this kind can be divided into such group as:
1) Explanatory dictionaries
2) Etymological dictionaries
3) Dictionaries of synonyms
4) Phraseological dictionaries.
Besides, such dictionaries can be mentioned as historical dialectal.
Bilingual or translating dictionaries reresent the most ordinary, widespread type. They contain words and expressions of the native language and their foreign equivalents, or vice-versa. (the English-Russian dictionary by V. K. Miller, etc)
Explanatory dictionaries give definitions of word meanings. In fact to a certain extent they acquaint us with the history of vocabulary development. The explanation are given in the same language, so they are one-language dictionaries, as it were. For example “Webster’s New World dictionary of the American language”, Webster’s “New International dictionary of the English language” are usually considered to be the most available and popular editions. But the greatest authority, naturally, and the most comprehensive is The New English dictionary on Historical Principles.
Etymological dictionaries state the origin of words. If borrowed, the source of borrowing and the original form are given, with all the subsequent changes in meaning and usage. If native, the Anglo-Dakon form is given together with the history of word development paralel forms in other Gemanic languages. Skeat’s Etymological dictionary is believed to be one of the most widely used.
Dictionaries of synonymes give either groups of synonyms without any explanations of difference in shades of meaning or usage, as concise dictionaries usually do, or as in full-size synonymic dictionaries, one can find lengthy definitions of every synonym that the group contains with even directions as to how to use them. The dictionary of this kind is the Webster’s dictionary of synonyms. It does not give any etymological or historical information but it supplies very detailed and extensive explanations of the subtlest shades of meaning that synonyms differ in. The lists of synonymes are much more exhaustive than in the earlier dictionaries of synonymes (e. g. amiable, lovable, gracious, cordial, affable, genial, warm-hearted, warm, responsive, kind, tender, kindly, begignant, benign).
Phraseological dictionaries deal with phraseological group of a certain language(“English Idioms” by W. G. Smith, “English Idioms and how to use them” by W. McMordie etc)
The best known phonetical dictionary is “An English Pronouncing Dictionary” by Jones. Among dialectal dictionaries the “Slang Dictionary” by Chatto and Windus is famous. It is also called “Ethymological, Historical and Anecdotal”.
Before using a dictionary, one should become familiar with the metods, principles, and scope of the book because various dictionaries are arranged in different ways. Many American dictionaries are arranged in different ways. Many american dictionaries arrange all entries in a single alphabetical list. Others put abbreviations, geographical and biographical names, and foreign words and phrases in separate lists, usually at the end of the book. All good dictionaries today have introductory sections that explain what the book contains and how it is arranged.
First of all let us now look carefully at some dictionary entries in an effort to secure from them all the information they contain. We shall begin by looking closely at the entry anecdote in the College edition of Webster’s New World Dictionary.
an.ec.dote(an’ik-dot’), n, [Fr. ;ML. Anecdota;Gr. Anekdota, neut. Pl. of anecdots unpublished;an-, not+ekdotos<ekdidonai;ek-, out+didonai, to give]
1) pl. Originally, little-known, entertaining facts of history or biography; hence,
2) a short, entertaining account of some happening, usually personal or biographical. –SIN. , see story.
This dictionary makes etymology one of its strong features and so serves exceptionally well for our purpose.
The following things about this entry are of interest:
1) The entry word, printed in boldface to give it more prominence, is divided by periods into its three syllables. This form of division not only helps out with the pronunciation of a word, but it also gives assistance to one whohas to divide a word at the end of a line of writing or printing.
In such cases, words should be devided with respect to their syllables.
2) then, within curves, the word is rewritten, this time in symbols that show pronunciation. A heavy accent mark, immediately follows the syllable which receives most stress, and a lighter mark indicates the syllable getting minor stress. A sylable, here Ik, which gets no stress is followed by a hyphen. Following the indication of pronuciation comes the abbreviation of the of speech to wich the word belongs.
3) It is well-accepted dictionary procedure to place etymologies in square brackets just after the indication of the part of speech of the word involved. Etymology easier to follow if we begin at the very end of it and proceed back to its beginning.
In Greek there was a verb, “didinai”, meaning “to give”. A common prefix, ek-, was often used before this verb and it then became “ekdidonai” (to give out). From this expanded form of the verb Greek formed an adjective, “ekdotos”, given out. In Greek it was customary to prefix an- to adjectives beginning with a vowel and thus reverse or negate their meanings. So the Greeks formed “anekdotos”, not given out.
Greek adjectives had masculine, feminine, and neuter forms. The neuter plural of “anekdotos” was “anekdota”, unpublished things, that is, things not given out. Latin, during the medieval period, borrowed “anekdota” in the form “anecdota”. This latin term passed into French, where it was spelled “anecdote”. From French the word, unchanged in form, passed into English.
4) The meanings are given in the order of their ages, the oldest meaning being given first. Observe how original meaning ledon to sense 2, the one which nowadays the word usually has.