Топик: Конверсионное словообразование прилагательных цветообозначения. Методика преподавния в нач.классах
Type loan verb fr. loan substantive
(desubstantival verbs.)
Many PE verbs. go back to OE : answer (andsharu / andswarian), blossom (blostm / blostnian), claw (clawu / clawian), fish (fisc / fiscian), fire (fyr / fytian), harm (hearm / hearmian),wonder (wundor / wundrian), bill «strike with the bill, peck», ground «bring to the ground», loan (1240), back (OE), butter (OE), experiment (ME), lamb (OE), night (OE), piece (ME), pit «cart into a pit»(OE), plank (ME), plate (ME), plow, plough (OE), plague (ME), priest (OE), promise (ME), prose (ME), ridge (OE), rivet (ME), rode (ME), root (EME), sack (OE), sauce «season» (ME), scale (ME), screen (ME), shoulder (OE), side (OE), silver (OE), sponge (OE), spot (ME), story (ME), streak (OE), summer (OE), table (ME), thong (OE), tin (OE), veil (ME), winter (OE), all before 1500.
Angle «run into a corner» (ME), balance (ME), butcher (ME), cipher (ME), cloister (ME), coffin (ME), collar (ME), colt «run wild as a colt» (ME), cipher (ME), fancy (1465), fin (OE), gesture (ME), girdle (OE), glove (OE), gossip (OE), grade (1511), husk (ME), kennel (ME), knob (ME), ladle (OE), latch (ME), launder (ME), lecture (ME), libel (ME), mother (OE), neighbor (OE), place (ME), pole (ME), riddle «speak in riddles» (OE), shell (OE), shop (ME), star (OE), stomach «be offended» (ME), sun (OE), vision (ME), all 16th century blanket (ME), casket (1467), lamp (ME), leaf (OE), pilot (1530), race «run» (ME), soldier (ME), all 17th century Capture (1541), diamond (ME), onion (ME), stocking (1583), tour (ME), all 18th century Scrimmage (1470), shin (OE), signal (ME), torpedo (1520), vacation (ME), wolf «eat like a wolf» (OE), 19th century, major 1927.
It would be difficult to give a complete list of derivatives as there is an ever growing tendency verbs from substantives without derivative morphemes. A few recent are service, contact (1929), audition, debut, package, chairman, page, date (1928), process (1945), waitress (1946), pressure (not in OED or Spl.), feature (rec., as in the play features ). Mencken/11/ gives many more, most of which are, however, hardly used.
It is likewise useless to try a classification to sense-groups, as there is no class-denoting formative. The verb may denote almost any verbal action connected with the basis of the underlying substantive. The verb bed has or has had the meanings «spread a bed», «put to bed» (with various implications), «go to bed», «sleep with», and there are more technical meanings. Bladin/5/ had already pointed out that «every action or occurrence can be designated by a verb derived from the very noun the idea of which most easily enters the mind of the person wanting to state a fact», and if Jespersen/7/ says that «it is difficult to give a general definition of the sense-relation between substantive and de-substantival verbs», this is rather an understatement. It may be recognized certain groups, as «put in ...», «furnish, cover, affect ...», but it should be noted that each of these senses is only one the many which the same verb has or may have. Biese/4/, therefore, makes no attempt at classification, and he is certainly right in doing so. It may, however, be worthy of note that the privative sense as in dust «remove the dust (from)» is frequent only with technical terms denoting various kinds of dressing or cleaning. Exs are bur wool or cotton, burl cloth, poll, pollard trees, bone, gut, scale fish.
The meaning of a certain verb is clear in a certain speech situation. That brain means «smash the b.»,can «preserve in cans», winter «pass the winter», is a result of given circumstances which establish the bridge of understanding between the speaker and the person or persons spoken to.
There are derivatives from proper names, as boycott 1880 (orig. spelt with a capital, from the name of Captain Boycott who was first boycotted), Shanghay 1871 ‘drug and press on board a vessel’, Zeppelin 1916 ‘bomb from a zeppelin’ (also clipped = zap ).
Some verbs often occur in the -ing substantive only (originally or chiefly), while finite verb forms or infinitives are not or rarely used, as hornpiping ‘dancing a hornpipe’ (no verb rec.), slimming, orcharding ‘cultivation of fruit trees (no verb rec.). Dialling ‘the art of construction dials’, speeching, electioneering, engineering, parlamenteering, volunteering are the original forms. Converted cpds with -monger for a second-word are current only in the -ing form (merit-mongering, money-mongering etc.). Innings are not matched by any other verb form, nor are cocking ‘cock-fighting’, hopping ‘hop-picking’, moon-shining ‘illicit distilling’ and others.
Type idle verb fr. idle adjective. (deadjectival verbs).
To the OE period go back bitter, busy, cool, fair, fat, light, open, right, yellow (obs black, bright, dead, strong, old ).
From the period between about 1150 and 1200 are recorded obs sick ‘suffer illness’, soft, low (obs meek, hory, hale ). The following date from the period between about 1200 and 1300 (Biese/4/ has included the Cursor Mundi in this period): black, brown, loose, slight, better, blind (obs hardly, certain, rich, wide, broad, less ). From the 14th century are recorded ready, clear, grey, sore, pale, full, dull, round, gentle, English, tender, perfect (obs able, sound, weak, unable, honest, noble ). From the 15th century purple, stale, clean, from the 16th century shallow, slow, quiet, empty, bloody, idle, equal, dirty, parallel (and many other now obs words, as Biese/4/ points out). The 17th century coined crimson, giddy, worst, blue, gallant, shy, tense, ridicule, unfit, ruddy (and many how obs words. Biese/4/). From 18th century Are recorded net ‘gain as a net sum’ 1758, total (once 1716, then 1859), negative, northern (said of landscape), invalid ‘enter on the sick-list’, queer ‘cheat’ , from the 19th century desperate ‘drive desperate’, stubborn, sly ‘move in a stealthy manner’, chirk ‘make cheerful’, gross ‘make a gross profit’ 1884, southern (said of wind), aeriform, true. From our century there are such words as pretty, wise, lethal, big.
Usually, deadjectival verbs denote change of state, and the meaning is either ‘become ...’ or ‘make ...’. Intransitive verbs with meaning ‘be...’ (as idle, sly, equal ) from quite a small group. Some verbs have a comparative or superlative as root: better, best, worst, perhaps lower.
Type out verb fr out particle (verbs derived from
locative particles).
Derivation from locative particles is less common than the preceding types. In Old English there are yppan, fremman (with i- mutation from up, fram ), framian, utian. Later are over ‘to master’ 1456, obs under ‘cast down’ 1502, off ‘put off’ 1642, down 1778, nigh ‘draw near’ 1200, thwart 1250, west ‘move towards the west’ 1381, south 1725, north 1866, east 1858.
These words, however, are not very common (except out and thwart ).
Type hail verb fr hail interjection (verbs derived from minor particles).
Derivation from exclamation and interjection (most of there onomatopoeias) is more frequent. It will, however, be noted that many of these conversions have undergone functional and formal changes only without acquiring a well - grounded lexical existence, their meaning merely being «say..., utter the sound...». Exs are hail 1200, nay «say nay, refuse» 13.., mum 1399, obs. Hosht «reduce to silence» etc., whoo (16th century), humph (17th century), encore, dee-hup (to a horse), pshaw, halloa, yaw (speak affectedly», hurrah (18th century), tally-ho (fox-hunting term), boo, yes, heigh-ho «sigh», bravo, tut, bow-wow, haw-haw, boo-hoo «weep noisily» etc. (Biese/4/ also Jespersen/7/).
The meaning ‘say...’ may occur with other words also when they are used as exclamation or interjections, as with iffing (other verb forms are not recorded), hence ‘order hence’ (obs., 1580). And it may be reckoned here all the words of the type sir ‘call sir’.
From about 1600 on, geminated forms also occur as verbs. A few have been mentioned in the foregoing paragraph; others are snip-snap (1593),dingle-dangle, ding-dong, pit-pat (17th century), pitter-patter, wiggle-waggle (18th century), criss-cross, rap-tap, wig-wag (19th century) etc.
The limits of verbal derivation.
Derivation from suffixed nouns is uncommon. Biese’s/4/ treatment of the subject suffers from a lack of discrimination. He has about 600 examples of substantives and adjectives; but the ‘suffixes’ are mere terminations. Words such herring, pudding, nothing, worship are not derivatives. The terminations -ace, -ice, -ogue, -y (as in enemy ) have never had any derivative force.
Theoretically it would seem that the case of a suffixal composite such as boyhood is not different from that of a fill compound such as spotlight . But obviously the fact that suffixes are categorizes generally prevents suffixal derivatives from becoming the determinants of pseudo-compound verbs. There are very few that are in common use, such as waitress (rec.), package (rec., chiefly in form packaged, packaging ), manifold OE (obsolescent today), forward 1596, referee 1889, such adjectives as dirty, muddy. Many more are recorded in OED (as countess, patroness, squiress, traitress ‘play the...’, fellowship, kingdom a.o.).
Another reason seems to be still more important. Many of the nominal suffixes derive substantives from verbs., and it would be contrary to reason to form such verbs as arrival, guidance, improvement, organization when arrive, guide, improve, organize exist. Similar consideration apply to deadjectival derivatives like freedom or idleness. The verb disrupture is recorded in OED (though only in participial forms) but it is not common. Reverence is used as a verb, but it is much older (13.., 1290) than the verb revere (1661). It should also be noted that the alternation revere/reverence shows characteristics of vowel change and stress which are irregular with derivation by means of -ance, -ence . For same reason reference is not a regular derivative from refer, which facilitated the coinage reference ‘provide with references’ etc. 1884.
There are no verbal derivatives from prefixed words either. The verb unfit ‘make unfit’ 1611 is isolated.
Type look substantive fr. look verb (deverbal
substantives).
Deverbal substantives are much less numerous than denominal verbs. The frequency-relation between the two types has been approximately the same in all periods of the language. An exception is to be made for the second half of the 13th century «when the absolute number of conversion-substantives is larger that of the verbs formed from substantives» (Biese/4/).
Form the 13th century are recorded (unless otherwise mentioned in parentheses, the resp. Verbs are OE) dread (1175), have, look, steal, weep, call (1225), crack, ‘noise’, dwell, hide, make, mislike, mourn, show, spit, ‘spittle’, stint, wrest ‘act of twisting’ a.o.