Курсовая работа: Linguistic and socio-cultural peculiarities of business communication

Rhythm as a linguistic notion is realized in lexical, syntactical and prosodic means and mostly in their combinations. Speech rhythm is traditionally defined as recurrence of stressed syllables at more or less equal intervals of time in a speech continuum. We also find a more detailed definition of speech rhythm as the regular alternation of acceleration and slowing down, of relaxation and intensification, of length and brevity, of similar and dissimilar elements within a speech event. Such figures of speech as sound or word repetition, syntactical parallelism, intensification and others are perceived as rhythmical on the lexical, syntactical and prosodic levels. Often the syntactical parallelism of the homogeneous clauses is correlated with the identical prosodic contour of the intonation groups in the phrase and is strengthened by the repetition of a certain word.

In the stress-timed English language, the amount of time given on each syllable varies considerably, the total time of uttering each rhythmic unit is practically unchanged. The stressed syllables of a rhythmic unit form peaks of prominence. They tend to be pronounced at regular intervals no matter how many unstressed syllables are located between every two stressed ones. Thus the distribution of time within the rhythmic unit is unequal. The regularity is provided by the strong "beats".[45]

The markedly regular stress-timed pulses of speech seem to create the strict, abrupt and spiky effect of English rhythm. To bring the meaning of the utterance to the listener the stressed syllables of the notional words are given more prominence by the speaker and the unstressed monosyllabic form words are left very weak.

The speech tempo and style often regulate the division into rhythmic groups. The enclitic tendency is more typical for informal speech whereas the semantic tendency prevails in accurate, more explicit speech.

The more organized the speech is the more rhythmical it appears. A lecture read aloud is more rhythmic than colloquial speech. On the other hand, rhythm is also individual – a fluent speaker may sound more rhythmical than a person searching for the right word and refining the structure of a phrase while actually pronouncing it.

However, regularity in a speech chain is not realized in its exact isochronous form. Absolutely regular speech produces the effect of monotony. It means that the intervals between the stressed syllables are not physically equal. Whenever short rhythmic groups are mixed with longer ones the speaker minimizes the differences by means of changes in the rate of delivery.

Most rhythmic groups are simultaneously sense units. K. Pike finds the term "waves" for rhythm periodicity to be very expressive.[46]

In speech an intonation group, a phrase and a phonopassage seem to have similar prosodic organization:

1) the beginning of a rhythmic unit is characterized by the tone and intensity maximum, the slowing of the tempo;

2) the end of a rhythmic unit is marked by a pause of different length, the tone and intensity minimum, slowing of the tempo, generally sloping descending terminal tones;

3) the most common pre-nuclear pattern of a rhythmic unit is usually the High (Medium) Level Head.

Many of those who use language well have a natural ear for rhythmic patterns: they know how to use rhythmic devices to reinforce meaning and control the emotions of the audience. Rhythm of the delivered speech can describe the features of the speaker’s voice, the structural elements of the speech that can be characterized on the textual level, and visuals – everything that contains repeated elements.

Tension can cause the vocal cords to be too tight to follow the natural rhythms of language. As a result, the performance can be monotonous and uninspiring.[47] Professional speakers do not distort the rhythm of their speech.[48]

Loudness

Loudness is a strong factor that affects perceived meaning. Human beings have a built-in mechanism that adjusts the volume of the voice to what is needed. More precisely, loudness is the attribute of auditory sensation in terms of which a sound may be ordered on a scale from soft to loud[49] , corresponding to some degree with the acousticfeatures of intensity (measured in decibels (dB)), which in the study of speech is based on the size of the vibrations of the vocal cords, as a result of variations in air-pressure. There is, however, no direct or parallel correlation between loudness (or 'volume') and intensity: other factors than intensity may affect our sensation of loudness; e.g. increasing the frequencyof vocal-cord vibrations may make one sound seem louder than another.

Knowing how to use volume to control meaning is a useful skill. Some speakers have naturally loud voices. However, the volume of one's voice should correlate with the size of the room and audience. If one speaks too loudly or too softly, the audience will react nonverbally. For example, when a speaker starts to speak too loudly, the listeners move back in their chairs. Or they move up to the edge of their seats, turning their ears in the speaker's direction when he speaks too softly.

Volume frequently reflects emotional intensity. Loud persons are often perceived as aggressive or overbearing. Soft-spoken persons are often perceived as timid or polite.

Volume, or loudness, is often a problem with inexperienced speakers. Some people cannot produce enough energy to be heard by others. Others blast their voices through interpersonal encounters. An overly loud voice can be irritating to listen to and sound brash or autocratic. A speaker with an overly soft voice is equally distracting. Not only is it difficult to hear and understand, but the audience might conclude that they are listening to a reluctant speaker, and will soon lose patience and interest. So, speaking too loudly or too softly may lead to a breakdown in speaker-listener communication.[50]

Besides speaking too loudly or too softly, a speaker must be aware of a third aspect of volume, which is variety. Volume must be varied if it is to be effective. When the loudness or softness does not vary, then the voice will become boring. Also, a constant volume throughout the presentation leads to failure of distinguishing the main points in a speech. The volume should be varied to avoid monotony and periodically recapture his audience's attention. Modulating the volume appropriately can serve as a voice clue, helping the audience identify the key points.[51] One particularly effective technique for attracting attention to an important idea is to pause almost imperceptibly before the last two or three words and then to speak them softly. Listeners lean forward to catch the words. The speaker has their undivided attention.[52]

However, some speakers begin at a normal volume but end up in almost a whisper. This problem of vocal drop-off is usually a product of nervousness, when the speaker either runs out of air while delivering a particularly long sentence, or prematurely focuses on the next sentence.

Consequently, shouting or whispering is a deviation from normal and it can be misinterpreted. Particularly, raising one's voice does not facilitate comprehension. Hence the voice should not be too loud.[53] To be better understood, a speaker should speak clearly, in a calm, reassuring manner.

Voice Quality

The voice that people hear when one talks is far different from the simple tone produced by the vibrations of one's vocal folds. Resonation increases the complexity of the voice tone. The resonators of the upper body and head are the primary sources of the distinctive sound of each human voice described as voice quality.[54] By affecting these resonators, people change the quality of their voice.

Voice quality is the result of a combination of factors, most notably linked to physiology and breathing patterns. It can range from nasal to breathy and from hoarse to flat and convey an infinite variety of impressions — harsh, excited, bored, angry, amused, apologetic, sexy, conceited.[55] D.Crystal indicates the labels for the many qualities which can be produced as those that tend to be impressionistic and ambiguous, e.g. a 'cheery', 'haughty', 'sullen' voice.[56] Different vocal qualities can also be described as 'strident', 'thin', 'resonant', 'breathy', 'husky', 'harsh', 'nasal', or 'denasal'.[57] Many of these terms have negative connotations.

Good voice quality may be the biggest factor in the effectiveness of some speeches. The voices we hear regularly on television news are chosen, at least in part, because people respond positively to their quality.

What is behind this stereotypical response? Voice quality refers to the general characteristics of one's physiology and their effects upon an audience. The tonal qualities of the voice significantly affect how the message will be received, often overriding the message itself, because listeners automatically associate these qualities with personality. After years of cultural conditioning, listeners expect a speaker to sound the way he or she looks and to employ a tone of voice that is somehow commensurate with the subject. For instance, a speech on ballet delivered in a gruff, husky voice, or a speech on military strategy delivered in a breathy voice, would immediately sound incongruous. If the voice is not what the listeners expect, then much of the initial message will be lost until they adjust.[58]

Accuracy in sending and judging the nature of emotional messages appears to be related to an individual's sensitivity and familiarity with the vocal characteristics of emotional expression. Besides communicating emotional content, the voice has also been found to be a communicator of personal characteristics. Let us examine the aspect of vocal stereotypes.

Listening to a person's voice can sometimes help to identify that person's key characteristics. We also tend to associate particular voice types with particular personality types. Table 1summarizes stereotypes related to vocal cues.[59]

Table 1. Vocal cues and perceived personality stereotypes

Vocal Cues	Speakers	Stereotypes
Breathiness	Males	Young; artistic
Females	Feminine; pretty; effervescent; high strung; shallow
Thinness	Males	Did not alter listener's image of the speaker
Females	Social, physical, emotional, and mental immaturity; sense of humor and sensitivity
Flatness	Males	Masculine; sluggish; cold; withdrawn
Females	Masculine; sluggish; cold; withdrawn
Nasality	Males	A wide array of socially undesirable characteristics
Females	A wide array of socially undesirable characteristics
Tenseness	Males	Old; unyielding; cantankerous
Females	Young; emotional; feminine; high strung; less intelligent
Throatiness	Males	Old; realistic; mature; sophisticated; well adjusted
Females	Less intelligent; masculine; lazy; boorish; unemotional; ugly; sickly; careless; inartistic; humble; uninteresting; neurotic; apathetic
Orotundity	Males	Energetic; healthy; artistic; sophisticated; proud;
(fullness/	interesting; enthusiastic
richness)	Females	Lively; gregarious; aesthetic sensitivity; proud

Speakers should be aware that their vocal quality suggests certain things about them. Whether receivers are interested in identifying the speaker's age, occupation, or status, they are likely to make assumptions based on what his or her voice says to them. Although the picture or stereotype they form may be far from accurate, it could still influence their assessment of the speaker as an individual and affect the way they react to the spoken message.