Реферат: Теоретическая грамматика

Morphology originates from the word ,, morpheus'' (the god of dreams). They thought the god of dreams gave shape to their chaotical visions in sleep. Morphology deals with forms of words. It includes: parts of speech & their morphological categories. Morphological categories are represented in word forms. It studies the system of forms of word change. E.g.: the case & the

number of the noun; person, number, mood of the verb etc. Syntax includes the sentence & the parts of the sentence; it makes the study of ways of connection words & word combinations in the sentences.

Morphology & Syntax are two independent parts of Grammar and have their own objects of study; they're closely connected, for the morphological characteristics of the word are realized through its syntactical relations with other words.

On the other hand, the syntactical relations of the word may effect the morphological characteristics of parts of speech in the course of development of the grammatical structure of the language. E.g.: substantivisation of adjectives.

LECTURE 2.

(Continuation).

5. The distinctions between language & speech, which were first introduced by Ferdinant de Saussure, have since become one of the corner stones of Modern Linguistics.

,, Language is a system''.

It's the phonological, lexical & grammatical system, which lies at the basis of all speaking. It's the sourse, which every speaker & writer has to draw on if he wants to be understood by other speakers of the language. Speech, on the other hand, is the manifestation of language or its practical use by various speakers & writers of the given language. Thus, what we have before

us in oral or written form as material for analysis is always a product of speech.

There is no other way for linguists to get to language than through speech. Language characterizes a certain human community. It's used in the community; it's understood by all the members of the community; so it's called a social code. And by its nature, Language is social. Speech, on the contrary, is individual, but it's based upon language which exists in the minds of all speaking community. We can't see language, neither hear it. We can get to it only through speech. As we're concerned with Grammar only, we don't have to deal with phonological

and lexical parts of language. We shall only concentrate on the system of Grammar & its manifestation. Language & Speech are closely connected & intermingled. They may come a unity. Language is realized through Speech. The life of language consists in oral & written intercourse within 2 or more people. This linguistic intercourse is manifested through connected communications chiefly in the form of sentences, though not always so complete & well-arranged. The object in teaching Grammar is not only rules, which must be obeyed if one wants to speak & write the language correctly. It also aims at finding out what is actually said & written by the speakers of the language.

According to Ferdinant de Saussure: ,, Language is a treasure, formed by way of speaking practice & preserved in the minds of the people who belong to a certain speaking community." ,, Язык -- это клад, отлагаемый в памяти всех членoв данного языкового коллектива." It's a system of 3 systems (lex., gram., phon.), potentially existing in every mind & at the same time, in the minds of the whole speaking community, for, language can't exist wholly in one individual.

6. There're certain relations within the language. They say, the language is a system of paradigmatic relations. We mean the structure of various means & the classes they form. E.g.: boy, boys, boy's, boys'. They are written down with a vertical way. Paradigmatic relations are vertical. Speech is a system of syntagmatic relations. They're always linear (horizontal).

Syntagmatic chains - we mean the combinations, the same units form in the process of communication. E.g.: voice of phoning machine.

Originally, the differentiation between paradigmatics & syntagmatics was based on recognition of the two linguistic planes:

1. The plane of language.

2. The plane of speech.

Language planes are structured paradigmatically, speech ones - syntagmatically. It's generally known, that every linguistic unit ends in 2 types of systemic relations at a time. If certain units, equal in rank are correlated by means of an opposition (E.g.: long--longer--longest), we say they have paradigmatic relations, that are usually vertical & imply the choice when they're realized in actual speech (E.g.: I'm not going to stay here any longer.), the element that stands in paradigmatic relations. But they're substitutable. E.g.: 1). The way to the station is very long.

2). Which is the longest river in the world? Opposition relations are called associative. Associative groups exist in the vertical way. If linguistic elements appear in a contrast linear pattern, we say they have syntagmatic relations. They form a syntagneme, which may comprise:

phonemes, morphemes, words, phrases, clauses. Syntagmatic relations can be observed not only at syntax level, they're not associative, but constructive, for they're based on the linear confrontation of the language units. Paradigmatic relations, which are typical of language, may be of different kinds: 1. They may be based on the similarity of the semantic features (synonymous & antonymous groups). E.g.: nice, pretty... 2. They may be based on the similarity of the formal characteristics of linguistic elements. Such relations exist between the members of a paradigm, which consists not of the units, but of those paradigmatic markers, which distinguish one form of the unit from its other forms. E.g.: go, goes, will go, has gone.

3. At the level major syntax we may also observe sentence paradigms, which are called transforms. They are united by a common meaning. E.g.: The work has been done, we went home. The work done, we went home. After the work was done, we went home. Syntagmatic relations exist between the elements linearly ordered. That is between phonemes, words etc. Linearity is the main factor for syntagmatic relations. Standing together in linear order, linguistic elements can make up a unity. But linearity is not the only ground, on which all syntagmatic relations are established. According to the logical approach, the differentiation is made between the 3 types of syntagmatic relations:

1. Independence. 2. Dependence. 3. Interdependence.

There are: combinational syntagmatic relations, which reveal relatedness of elements & non-combinational ones.

Combinational syntagmatic relations can be subdivided into:

1. Collocational (lexico-semantic).

2. Colligational (grammatical).

Collocational relations are not of a grammatical character, they're of lexicosemantic character; the collocated elements are located together in the same linear arrangement (,,to speak fluently).

Colligational relations are based on the morphological & syntactical peculiarities of the word (,,to tell him"; ,,to say nothing").Non-combinational relations are cohesive. They may be anaphoric & cataphoric.